The Global Market for Sustainable Chemicals 2025-2035

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

• 1.1. The Need for a New Era in the Chemical Industry
• 1.2. Defining the New Era of Chemicals
• 1.3. Global Drivers and Trends
• 1.4. The Changing Landscape of the Chemical Industry
  • 1.4.1. Historical Context: From Coal to Oil to Renewables
  • 1.4.2. Current State of the Global Chemical Industry
  • 1.4.3. Environmental Challenges and Regulatory Pressures
  • 1.4.4. Shifting Consumer Demands and Market Dynamics
  • 1.4.5. The Role of Digitalization and Industry 4.0
• 1.5. Emerging and Transforming Markets in the New Era of Chemicals
  • 1.5.1. Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals
  • 1.5.2. Green Cosmetics and Personal Care
  • 1.5.3. Sustainable Packaging
  • 1.5.4. Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings
  • 1.5.5. Alternative Fuels and Lubricants
  • 1.5.6. Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare
  • 1.5.7. Water Treatment and Purification
  • 1.5.8. Carbon Capture and Utilization Products
  • 1.5.9. Advanced Materials for 3D Printing
  • 1.5.10. Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy

2. FEEDSTOCKS

• 2.1. Sustainable Feedstocks: The Foundation of the New Era
• 2.2. Overview of Sustainable Feedstock Options
• 2.3. Biomass as a Chemical Feedstock
  • 2.3.1. Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions
  • 2.3.2. Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies
  • 2.3.3. Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization
• 2.4. CO2 as a Carbon Source
  • 2.4.1. CO2 Capture Technologies
  • 2.4.2. Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2
  • 2.4.3. Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization
• 2.5. Waste Valorization
  • 2.5.1. Municipal Solid Waste as a Feedstock
  • 2.5.2. Industrial Waste Streams and By-products
  • 2.5.3. Plastic Waste Recycling and Upcycling
• 2.6. Renewable (Green) Hydrogen
  • 2.6.1. Electrolysis Technologies
  • 2.6.2. Integration of Renewable Energy in Hydrogen Production
  • 2.6.3. Hydrogen's Role in Chemical Synthesis

3. GREEN CHEMISTRY PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

• 3.1. The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry
• 3.2. Atom Economy and Step Economy in Synthesis
• 3.3. Solvent Reduction and Green Solvents
  • 3.3.1. Water as a Reaction Medium
  • 3.3.2. Ionic Liquids and Deep Eutectic Solvents
  • 3.3.3. Supercritical Fluids in Chemical Processes
• 3.4. Catalysis for Green Chemistry
  • 3.4.1. Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering
  • 3.4.2. Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements
  • 3.4.3. Photocatalysis and Electrocatalysis
• 3.5. Green Metrics and Life Cycle Assessment in Chemistry

4. CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

• 4.1. Principles of Circular Economy
• 4.2. Design for Circularity in Chemical Products
• 4.3. Chemical Recycling Technologies
  • 4.3.1. Applications
  • 4.3.2. Pyrolysis
    • 4.3.2.1. Non-catalytic
    • 4.3.2.2. Catalytic
      • 4.3.2.2.1. Polystyrene pyrolysis
      • 4.3.2.2.2. Pyrolysis for production of bio fuel
      • 4.3.2.2.3. Used tires pyrolysis
        • 4.3.2.2.3.1. Conversion to biofuel
      • 4.3.2.2.4. Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes
    • 4.3.2.3. Companies and capacities
  • 4.3.3. Gasification
    • 4.3.3.1. Technology overview
      • 4.3.3.1.1. Syngas conversion to methanol
      • 4.3.3.1.2. Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation
      • 4.3.3.1.3. Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion
    • 4.3.3.2. Companies and capacities (current and planned)
  • 4.3.4. Dissolution
    • 4.3.4.1. Technology overview
    • 4.3.4.2. Companies and capacities (current and planned)
  • 4.3.5. Depolymerisation
    • 4.3.5.1. Hydrolysis
      • 4.3.5.1.1. Technology overview
    • 4.3.5.2. Enzymolysis
      • 4.3.5.2.1. Technology overview
    • 4.3.5.3. Methanolysis
      • 4.3.5.3.1. Technology overview
    • 4.3.5.4. Glycolysis
      • 4.3.5.4.1. Technology overview
    • 4.3.5.5. Aminolysis
      • 4.3.5.5.1. Technology overview
    • 4.3.5.6. Companies and capacities (current and planned)
  • 4.3.6. Other advanced chemical recycling technologies
    • 4.3.6.1. Hydrothermal cracking
    • 4.3.6.2. Pyrolysis with in-line reforming
    • 4.3.6.3. Microwave-assisted pyrolysis
    • 4.3.6.4. Plasma pyrolysis
    • 4.3.6.5. Plasma gasification
    • 4.3.6.6. Supercritical fluids
• 4.4. Upcycling of Chemical Waste
• 4.5. Circular Business Models in the Chemical Sector
• 4.6. Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing Circularity
• 4.7. Companies

5. ELECTRIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES

• 5.1. The Role of Renewable Electricity in Chemical Production
• 5.2. Electrochemical Synthesis
  • 5.2.1. Electroorganic Synthesis
  • 5.2.2. Electrochemical CO2 Reduction
  • 5.2.3. Electrochemical Nitrogen Fixation
• 5.3. Plasma Chemistry
• 5.4. Microwave-Assisted Chemistry
• 5.5. Integration of Power-to-X Technologies in Chemical Production

6. DIGITALIZATION AND INDUSTRY 4.0 IN CHEMISTRY

• 6.1. Big Data and Advanced Analytics in Chemical Research
• 6.2. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications
  • 6.2.1. In Silico Design of Molecules and Materials
  • 6.2.2. Process Optimization and Predictive Maintenance
  • 6.2.3. Automated Synthesis and High-Throughput Experimentation
• 6.3. Digital Twins in Chemical Plant Operations
• 6.4. Blockchain for Supply Chain Transparency and Traceability
• 6.5. Cybersecurity Challenges in the Digitalized Chemical Industry

7. ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES

• 7.1. Continuous Flow Chemistry
  • 7.1.1. Microreactors and Process Intensification
  • 7.1.2. Advantages in Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals
  • 7.1.3. Challenges in Scale-up and Implementation
• 7.2. Modular and Distributed Manufacturing
• 7.3. 3D Printing of Chemicals and Materials
  • 7.3.1. Direct Ink Writing and Reactive Printing
  • 7.3.2. Applications in Custom Synthesis and Formulation
• 7.4. Advanced Process Control and Real-time Monitoring
• 7.5. Flexible and Adaptable Production Systems

8. BIOREFINING AND INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

• 8.1. Biorefinery Concepts and Configurations
  • 8.1.1. Biorefinery Classifications
  • 8.1.2. Biorefinery Configurations
    • 8.1.2.1. Lignocellulosic Biorefinery:
    • 8.1.2.2. Whole-Crop Biorefinery
    • 8.1.2.3. Green Biorefinery
    • 8.1.2.4. Thermochemical Biorefinery
    • 8.1.2.5. Marine Biorefinery
    • 8.1.2.6. Integrated Forest Biorefinery
    • 8.1.2.7. Integration and Process Intensification
• 8.2. Lignocellulosic Biomass Processing
• 8.3. Algal Biorefineries
• 8.4. Upstream Processing
  • 8.4.1. Cell Culture
    • 8.4.1.1. Overview
    • 8.4.1.2. Types of Cell Culture Systems
    • 8.4.1.3. Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance
    • 8.4.1.4. Advances in Cell Culture Technology
      • 8.4.1.4.1. Single-use systems
      • 8.4.1.4.2. Process analytical technology (PAT)
      • 8.4.1.4.3. Cell line development
• 8.5. Fermentation
  • 8.5.1. Overview
    • 8.5.1.1. Types of Fermentation Processes
    • 8.5.1.2. Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance
    • 8.5.1.3. Advances in Fermentation Technology
      • 8.5.1.3.1. High-cell-density fermentation
      • 8.5.1.3.2. Continuous processing
      • 8.5.1.3.3. Metabolic engineering
• 8.6. Downstream Processing
  • 8.6.1. Purification
    • 8.6.1.1. Overview
    • 8.6.1.2. Types of Purification Methods
      • 8.6.1.2.1. Factors Affecting Purification Performance
    • 8.6.1.3. Advances in Purification Technology
      • 8.6.1.3.1. Affinity chromatography
      • 8.6.1.3.2. Membrane chromatography
      • 8.6.1.3.3. Continuous chromatography
• 8.7. Formulation
  • 8.7.1. Overview
    • 8.7.1.1. Types of Formulation Methods
    • 8.7.1.2. Factors Affecting Formulation Performance
    • 8.7.1.3. Advances in Formulation Technology
      • 8.7.1.3.1. Controlled release
      • 8.7.1.3.2. Nanoparticle formulation
      • 8.7.1.3.3. 3D printing
• 8.8. Bioprocess Development
  • 8.8.1. Scale-up
    • 8.8.1.1. Overview
    • 8.8.1.2. Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance
    • 8.8.1.3. Scale-up Strategies
  • 8.8.2. Optimization
    • 8.8.2.1. Overview
    • 8.8.2.2. Factors Affecting Optimization Performance
    • 8.8.2.3. Optimization Strategies
• 8.9. Analytical Methods
  • 8.9.1. Quality Control
    • 8.9.1.1. Overview
    • 8.9.1.2. Types of Quality Control Tests
    • 8.9.1.3. Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance
  • 8.9.2. Characterization
    • 8.9.2.1. Overview
    • 8.9.2.2. Types of Characterization Methods
    • 8.9.2.3. Factors Affecting Characterization Performance
• 8.10. Scale of Production
  • 8.10.1. Laboratory Scale
    • 8.10.1.1. Overview
    • 8.10.1.2. Scale and Equipment
    • 8.10.1.3. Advantages
    • 8.10.1.4. Disadvantages
  • 8.10.2. Pilot Scale
    • 8.10.2.1. Overview
    • 8.10.2.2. Scale and Equipment
    • 8.10.2.3. Advantages
    • 8.10.2.4. Disadvantages
  • 8.10.3. Commercial Scale
    • 8.10.3.1. Overview
    • 8.10.3.2. Scale and Equipment
    • 8.10.3.3. Advantages
    • 8.10.3.4. Disadvantages
• 8.11. Mode of Operation
  • 8.11.1. Batch Production
    • 8.11.1.1. Overview
    • 8.11.1.2. Advantages
    • 8.11.1.3. Disadvantages
    • 8.11.1.4. Applications
  • 8.11.2. Fed-batch Production
    • 8.11.2.1. Overview
    • 8.11.2.2. Advantages
    • 8.11.2.3. Disadvantages
    • 8.11.2.4. Applications
  • 8.11.3. Continuous Production
    • 8.11.3.1. Overview
    • 8.11.3.2. Advantages
    • 8.11.3.3. Disadvantages
    • 8.11.3.4. Applications
  • 8.11.4. Cell factories for biomanufacturing
  • 8.11.5. Perfusion Culture
    • 8.11.5.1. Overview
    • 8.11.5.2. Advantages
    • 8.11.5.3. Disadvantages
    • 8.11.5.4. Applications
  • 8.11.6. Other Modes of Operation
    • 8.11.6.1. Immobilized Cell Culture
    • 8.11.6.2. Two-Stage Production
    • 8.11.6.3. Hybrid Systems
• 8.12. Host Organisms

9. CO2. UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES

• 9.1. Overview
• 9.2. CO2. non-conversion and conversion technology
• 9.3. Carbon utilization business models
  • 9.3.1. Benefits of carbon utilization
  • 9.3.2. Market challenges
• 9.4. Co2. utilization pathways
• 9.5. Conversion processes
  • 9.5.1. Thermochemical
    • 9.5.1.1. Process overview
    • 9.5.1.2. Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion
  • 9.5.2. Electrochemical conversion of CO2
    • 9.5.2.1. Process overview
  • 9.5.3. Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2
  • 9.5.4. Catalytic conversion of CO2
  • 9.5.5. Biological conversion of CO2
  • 9.5.6. Copolymerization of CO2
  • 9.5.7. Mineral carbonation
• 9.6. CO2-derived products
  • 9.6.1. Fuels
    • 9.6.1.1. Overview
    • 9.6.1.2. Production routes
    • 9.6.1.3. CO2 -fuels in road vehicles
    • 9.6.1.4. CO2 -fuels in shipping
    • 9.6.1.5. CO2 -fuels in aviation
    • 9.6.1.6. Power-to-methane
      • 9.6.1.6.1. Biological fermentation
      • 9.6.1.6.2. Costs
    • 9.6.1.7. Algae based biofuels
    • 9.6.1.8. CO2-fuels from solar
    • 9.6.1.9. Companies
    • 9.6.1.10. Challenges
  • 9.6.2. Chemicals and polymers
    • 9.6.2.1. Polycarbonate from CO2
    • 9.6.2.2. Carbon nanostructures
    • 9.6.2.3. Scalability
    • 9.6.2.4. Applications
      • 9.6.2.4.1. Urea production
      • 9.6.2.4.2. CO2-derived polymers
      • 9.6.2.4.3. Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing
      • 9.6.2.4.4. Carbon nanotubes
    • 9.6.2.5. Companies
  • 9.6.3. Construction materials
    • 9.6.3.1. Overview
    • 9.6.3.2. CCUS technologies
    • 9.6.3.3. Carbonated aggregates
    • 9.6.3.4. Additives during mixing
    • 9.6.3.5. Concrete curing
    • 9.6.3.6. Costs
    • 9.6.3.7. Market trends and business models
    • 9.6.3.8. Companies
    • 9.6.3.9. Challenges
  • 9.6.4. CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting
    • 9.6.4.1. Overview
    • 9.6.4.2. Applications
      • 9.6.4.2.1. Greenhouses
      • 9.6.4.2.2. Algae cultivation
        • 9.6.4.2.2.1. CO2-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems
        • 9.6.4.2.2.2. CO2-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems
      • 9.6.4.2.3. Microbial conversion
      • 9.6.4.2.4. Food and feed production
    • 9.6.4.3. Companies
• 9.7. CO2 Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery
  • 9.7.1. Overview
    • 9.7.1.1. Process
    • 9.7.1.2. CO2 sources
  • 9.7.2. CO2-EOR facilities and projects
  • 9.7.3. Challenges
• 9.8. Enhanced mineralization
  • 9.8.1. Advantages
  • 9.8.2. In situ and ex-situ mineralization
  • 9.8.3. Enhanced mineralization pathways
  • 9.8.4. Challenges

10. ADVANCED CATALYSTS FOR SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY

• 10.1. Overview of biocatalyst technology
  • 10.1.1. Biotransformations
  • 10.1.2. Cascade biocatalysis
  • 10.1.3. Co-factor recycling
  • 10.1.4. Immobilization
• 10.2. Types of biocatalysts
  • 10.2.1. Microorganisms
    • 10.2.1.1. Bacteria
    • 10.2.1.2. Fungi
    • 10.2.1.3. Yeast
    • 10.2.1.4. Archaea
    • 10.2.1.5. Algae
    • 10.2.1.6. Cyanobacteria
  • 10.2.2. Engineered biocatalysts
    • 10.2.2.1. Directed Evolution
    • 10.2.2.2. Rational Design
    • 10.2.2.3. Semi-Rational Design
    • 10.2.2.4. Immobilization
    • 10.2.2.5. Fusion Proteins
  • 10.2.3. Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.1. Detergent Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.2. Food Processing Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.3. Textile Processing Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.4. Paper and Pulp Processing Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.5. Leather Processing Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.6. Biofuel Production Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.7. Animal Feed Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.8. Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.9. Waste Management and Bioremediation Enzymes
    • 10.2.3.10. Agriculture and Crop Improvement Enzymes
  • 10.2.4. Other types
    • 10.2.4.1. Ribozymes
    • 10.2.4.2. DNAzymes
    • 10.2.4.3. Abzymes
    • 10.2.4.4. Nanozymes
    • 10.2.4.5. Organocatalysts
• 10.3. Production methods and processes
  • 10.3.1. Fermentation
  • 10.3.2. Recombinant DNA technology
  • 10.3.3. ell-Free Protein Synthesis
  • 10.3.4. Extraction from Natural Sources
  • 10.3.5. Solid-State Fermentation
• 10.4. Emerging technologies and innovations in biocatalysis
  • 10.4.1. Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering
    • 10.4.1.1. Batch biomanufacturing
    • 10.4.1.2. Continuous biomanufacturing
    • 10.4.1.3. Fermentation Processes
    • 10.4.1.4. Cell-free synthesis
  • 10.4.2. Generative biology and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
    • 10.4.2.1. Molecular Dynamics Simulations
    • 10.4.2.2. Quantum Mechanical Calculations
    • 10.4.2.3. Systems Biology Modeling
    • 10.4.2.4. Metabolic Engineering Modeling
  • 10.4.3. Genome engineering
  • 10.4.4. Immobilization and encapsulation techniques
  • 10.4.5. Biomimetics
  • 10.4.6. Nanoparticle-based biocatalysts
  • 10.4.7. Biocatalytic cascades and multi-enzyme systems
  • 10.4.8. Microfluidics
• 10.5. Companies

11. SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY AND METABOLIC ENGINEERING

• 11.1. Metabolic engineering
• 11.2. Gene and DNA synthesis
• 11.3. Gene Synthesis and Assembly
• 11.4. Genome engineering
  • 11.4.1. CRISPR
    • 11.4.1.1. CRISPR/Cas9-modified biosynthetic pathways
    • 11.4.1.2. TALENs
    • 11.4.1.3. ZFNs
• 11.5. Protein/Enzyme Engineering
• 11.6. Synthetic genomics
  • 11.6.1. Principles of Synthetic Genomics
  • 11.6.2. Synthetic Chromosomes and Genomes
• 11.7. Strain construction and optimization
• 11.8. Smart bioprocessing
• 11.9. Chassis organisms
• 11.10. Biomimetics
• 11.11. Sustainable materials
• 11.12. Robotics and automation
  • 11.12.1. Robotic cloud laboratories
  • 11.12.2. Automating organism design
  • 11.12.3. Artificial intelligence and machine learning
• 11.13. Bioinformatics and computational tools
  • 11.13.1. Role of Bioinformatics in Synthetic Biology
  • 11.13.2. Computational Tools for Design and Analysis
• 11.14. Xenobiology and expanded genetic alphabets
• 11.15. Biosensors and bioelectronics
• 11.16. Feedstocks
  • 11.16.1. C1 feedstocks
    • 11.16.1.1. Advantages
    • 11.16.1.2. Pathways
    • 11.16.1.3. Challenges
    • 11.16.1.4. Non-methane C1 feedstocks
    • 11.16.1.5. Gas fermentation
  • 11.16.2. C2 feedstocks
  • 11.16.3. Biological conversion of CO2
  • 11.16.4. Food processing wastes
    • 11.16.4.1. Syngas
    • 11.16.4.2. Glycerol
    • 11.16.4.3. Methane
    • 11.16.4.4. Municipal solid wastes
    • 11.16.4.5. Plastic wastes
    • 11.16.4.6. Plant oils
    • 11.16.4.7. Starch
    • 11.16.4.8. Sugars
    • 11.16.4.9. Used cooking oils
    • 11.16.4.10. Green hydrogen production
    • 11.16.4.11. Blue hydrogen production
  • 11.16.5. Marine biotechnology
    • 11.16.5.1. Cyanobacteria
    • 11.16.5.2. Macroalgae
    • 11.16.5.3. Companies

12. GREEN SOLVENTS AND ALTERNATIVE REACTION MEDIA

• 12.1. Bio-based Solvents
• 12.2. Switchable Solvents
• 12.3. Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES)
• 12.4. Supercritical Fluids in Industrial Applications
• 12.5. Solvent-free Reactions and Mechanochemistry
• 12.6. Solvent Selection Tools and Frameworks
• 12.7. Companies

13. WASTE VALORIZATION AND RESOURCE RECOVERY

• 13.1. Municipal Solid Waste to Chemicals
• 13.2. Agricultural and Food Waste Valorization
• 13.3. Critical Material Extraction Technology
  • 13.3.1. Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources (e.g., end-of-life products, industrial waste)
  • 13.3.2. Critical rare-earth element recovery from secondary sources
  • 13.3.3. Li-ion battery technology metal recovery
  • 13.3.4. Critical semiconductor materials recovery
  • 13.3.5. Critical semiconductor materials recovery
  • 13.3.6. Critical platinum group metal recovery
  • 13.3.7. Critical platinum Group metal recovery
• 13.4. Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery
  • 13.4.1. Bio-based Flocculants and Coagulants
  • 13.4.2. Green Oxidants and Disinfectants
  • 13.4.3. Sustainable Membrane Materials
    • 13.4.3.1. Bio-based polymer membranes
    • 13.4.3.2. Ceramic membranes from recycled materials
    • 13.4.3.3. Self-healing membranes
  • 13.4.4. Advanced Adsorbents for Contaminant Removal
    • 13.4.4.1. Biochar
    • 13.4.4.2. Activated carbon from waste biomass
    • 13.4.4.3. Green zeolites and MOFs (Metal-Organic Frameworks)
  • 13.4.5. Nutrient Recovery Technologies
  • 13.4.6. Resource Recovery from Industrial Wastewater
  • 13.4.7. Bioelectrochemical Systems
  • 13.4.8. Green Solvents in Extraction Processes
  • 13.4.9. Photocatalytic Materials
  • 13.4.10. Biodegradable Chelating Agents
  • 13.4.11. Biocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment
  • 13.4.12. Advanced Adsorption Materials
  • 13.4.13. Sustainable pH Adjustment Chemicals
• 13.5. Mining Waste Valorization
  • 13.5.1. Bioleaching and Biooxidation
  • 13.5.2. Green Lixiviants for Metal Extraction
  • 13.5.3. Phytomining and Phytoremediation
  • 13.5.4. Sustainable Flotation Chemicals
  • 13.5.5. Electrochemical Recovery Methods
  • 13.5.6. Geopolymers and Mine Tailings Utilization
  • 13.5.7. CO2 Mineralization
  • 13.5.8. Sustainable Remediation Technologies
  • 13.5.9. Waste-to-Energy Technologies
  • 13.5.10. Advanced Separation Techniques
• 13.6. Companies

14. ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION

• 14.1. Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants
• 14.2. Heat Recovery and Pinch Analysis
• 14.3. Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production
• 14.4. Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries
• 14.5. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems
• 14.6. Industrial Symbiosis and Energy Integration

15. SAFETY AND SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT

• 15.1. Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators
• 15.2. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Chemical Processes
• 15.3. Safety by Design Principles
• 15.4. Risk Assessment and Management in New Chemical Technologies
• 15.5. Environmental Impact Assessment
• 15.6. Social and Ethical Considerations in the New Era of Chemicals

16. REGULATIONS AND POLICY

• 16.1. Global Chemical Regulations and Their Evolution
• 16.2. Environmental Policies Driving Sustainable Chemistry
• 16.3. Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry
• 16.4. Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies
• 16.5. International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts

17. MARKETS AND PRODUCTS

• 17.1. Sustainable Materials and Polymers
  • 17.1.1. Bioplastics and Biodegradable Polymers
    • 17.1.1.1. Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA)
      • 17.1.1.1.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.1.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.1.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.1.4. Advantages
      • 17.1.1.1.5. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.2. Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET)
      • 17.1.1.2.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.2.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.2.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.2.4. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.3. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT)
      • 17.1.1.3.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.3.2. Production Process
      • 17.1.1.3.3. Properties
      • 17.1.1.3.4. Applications
      • 17.1.1.3.5. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.4. Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF)
      • 17.1.1.4.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.4.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.4.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.4.4. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.5. Bio-PA
      • 17.1.1.5.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.5.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.5.3. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.6. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT)- Aliphatic aromatic copolyesters
      • 17.1.1.6.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.6.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.6.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.6.4. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.7. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers
      • 17.1.1.7.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.7.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.7.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.7.4. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.8. Polypropylene (Bio-PP)
      • 17.1.1.8.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.8.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.8.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.8.4. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.9. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
      • 17.1.1.9.1. Properties
      • 17.1.1.9.2. Applications
      • 17.1.1.9.3. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.10. Starch-based blends
      • 17.1.1.10.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.10.2. Properties
      • 17.1.1.10.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.10.4. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.11. Cellulose
      • 17.1.1.11.1. Feedstocks
    • 17.1.1.12. Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)
      • 17.1.1.12.1. Properties
    • 17.1.1.13. Nanocellulose
      • 17.1.1.13.1. Cellulose nanocrystals
        • 17.1.1.13.1.1. Applications
      • 17.1.1.13.2. Cellulose nanofibers
        • 17.1.1.13.2.1. Applications
          • 17.1.1.13.2.1.1. Reinforcement and barrier
          • 17.1.1.13.2.1.2. Biodegradable food packaging foil and films
          • 17.1.1.13.2.1.3. Paperboard coatings
      • 17.1.1.13.3. Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
        • 17.1.1.13.3.1. Applications in packaging
        • 17.1.1.13.3.2. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.14. Protein-based bioplastics in packaging
      • 17.1.1.14.1. Feedstocks
      • 17.1.1.14.2. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.15. Alginate
      • 17.1.1.15.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.15.2. Production
      • 17.1.1.15.3. Applications
      • 17.1.1.15.4. Producers
    • 17.1.1.16. Mycelium
      • 17.1.1.16.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.16.2. Applications
      • 17.1.1.16.3. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.17. Chitosan
      • 17.1.1.17.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.17.2. Applications
      • 17.1.1.17.3. Commercial examples
    • 17.1.1.18. Bio-naphtha
      • 17.1.1.18.1. Overview
      • 17.1.1.18.2. Markets and applications
      • 17.1.1.18.3. Commercial examples
  • 17.1.2. Recycled and Upcycled Plastics
  • 17.1.3. High-Performance Bio-based Materials
  • 17.1.4. Companies
• 17.2. Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals
  • 17.2.1. Overview
  • 17.2.2. Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents
  • 17.2.3. Precision Agriculture Chemicals
  • 17.2.4. Controlled-Release Fertilizers
  • 17.2.5. Biostimulants
  • 17.2.6. Microbials
    • 17.2.6.1. Overview
    • 17.2.6.2. Microbial biostimulants and biofertilizers
    • 17.2.6.3. Microbiome manipulation
    • 17.2.6.4. Prebiotics
  • 17.2.7. Biochemicals
  • 17.2.8. Semiochemicals
  • 17.2.9. Macrobials
  • 17.2.10. Biopesticides
    • 17.2.10.1. Natural herbicides and insecticides
  • 17.2.11. Companies
• 17.3. Sustainable Construction Materials
  • 17.3.1. Established bio-based construction materials
  • 17.3.2. Hemp-based Materials
    • 17.3.2.1. Hemp Concrete (Hempcrete)
    • 17.3.2.2. Hemp Fiberboard
    • 17.3.2.3. Hemp Insulation
  • 17.3.3. Mycelium-based Materials
    • 17.3.3.1. Insulation
    • 17.3.3.2. Structural Elements
    • 17.3.3.3. Acoustic Panels
    • 17.3.3.4. Decorative Elements
  • 17.3.4. Sustainable Concrete and Cement Alternatives
    • 17.3.4.1. Geopolymer Concrete
    • 17.3.4.2. Recycled Aggregate Concrete
    • 17.3.4.3. Lime-Based Materials
    • 17.3.4.4. Self-healing concrete
      • 17.3.4.4.1. Bioconcrete
      • 17.3.4.4.2. Fiber concrete
    • 17.3.4.5. Microalgae biocement
    • 17.3.4.6. Carbon-negative concrete
    • 17.3.4.7. Biomineral binders
  • 17.3.5. Natural Fiber Composites
    • 17.3.5.1. Types of Natural Fibers
    • 17.3.5.2. Properties
    • 17.3.5.3. Applications in Construction
  • 17.3.6. Cellulose nanofibers
    • 17.3.6.1. Sandwich composites
    • 17.3.6.2. Cement additives
    • 17.3.6.3. Pump primers
    • 17.3.6.4. Insulation materials
  • 17.3.7. Sustainable Insulation Materials
    • 17.3.7.1. Types of sustainable insulation materials
    • 17.3.7.2. Biobased and sustainable aerogels (bio-aerogels)
  • 17.3.8. Companies
• 17.4. Sustainable Packaging
  • 17.4.1. Paper and board packaging
  • 17.4.2. Food packaging
    • 17.4.2.1. Bio-Based films and trays
    • 17.4.2.2. Bio-Based pouches and bags
    • 17.4.2.3. Bio-Based textiles and nets
    • 17.4.2.4. Bioadhesives
      • 17.4.2.4.1. Starch
      • 17.4.2.4.2. Cellulose
      • 17.4.2.4.3. Protein-Based
    • 17.4.2.5. Barrier coatings and films
      • 17.4.2.5.1. Polysaccharides
        • 17.4.2.5.1.1 Chitin
        • 17.4.2.5.1.2 Chitosan
        • 17.4.2.5.1.3 Starch
      • 17.4.2.5.2. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
      • 17.4.2.5.3. Poly(butylene Succinate)
      • 17.4.2.5.4. Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings
    • 17.4.2.6. Active and Smart Food Packaging
      • 17.4.2.6.1. Active Materials and Packaging Systems
      • 17.4.2.6.2. Intelligent and Smart Food Packaging
    • 17.4.2.7. Antimicrobial films and agents
      • 17.4.2.7.1. Natural
      • 17.4.2.7.2. Inorganic nanoparticles
      • 17.4.2.7.3. Biopolymers
    • 17.4.2.8. Bio-based Inks and Dyes
    • 17.4.2.9. Edible films and coatings
      • 17.4.2.9.1. Overview
      • 17.4.2.9.2. Commercial examples
    • 17.4.2.10. Types of bio-based coatings and films in packaging
      • 17.4.2.10.1. Polyurethane coatings
        • 17.4.2.10.1.1. Properties
        • 17.4.2.10.1.2. Bio-based polyurethane coatings
        • 17.4.2.10.1.3. Products
      • 17.4.2.10.2. Acrylate resins
        • 17.4.2.10.2.1. Properties
        • 17.4.2.10.2.2. Bio-based acrylates
        • 17.4.2.10.2.3. Products
      • 17.4.2.10.3. Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA)
        • 17.4.2.10.3.1. Properties
        • 17.4.2.10.3.2. Bio-PLA coatings and films
      • 17.4.2.10.4. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) coatings
      • 17.4.2.10.5. Cellulose coatings and films
        • 17.4.2.10.5.1. Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)
        • 17.4.2.10.5.2. Cellulose nanofibers
          • 17.4.2.10.5.2.1. Properties
          • 17.4.2.10.5.2.2. Product developers
      • 17.4.2.10.6. Lignin coatings
      • 17.4.2.10.7. Protein-based biomaterials for coatings
        • 17.4.2.10.7.1. Plant derived proteins
        • 17.4.2.10.7.2. Animal origin proteins
  • 17.4.3. Carbon capture derived materials for packaging
    • 17.4.3.1. Benefits of carbon utilization for plastics feedstocks
    • 17.4.3.2. CO2-derived polymers and plastics
    • 17.4.3.3. CO2 utilization products
  • 17.4.4. Companies
• 17.5. Green Cosmetics and Personal Care
  • 17.5.1. Natural and Bio-based Ingredients
  • 17.5.2. Microplastic Alternatives
    • 17.5.2.1. Natural hard materials
    • 17.5.2.2. Polysaccharides
      • 17.5.2.2.1. Starch
      • 17.5.2.2.2. Cellulose
        • 17.5.2.2.2.1 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)
        • 17.5.2.2.2.2 Regenerated cellulose microspheres
        • 17.5.2.2.2.3 Cellulose nanocrystals
        • 17.5.2.2.2.4 Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC)
      • 17.5.2.2.3. Chitin
    • 17.5.2.3. Proteins
      • 17.5.2.3.1. Collagen/Gelatin
      • 17.5.2.3.2. Casein
    • 17.5.2.4. Polyesters
      • 17.5.2.4.1. Polyhydroxyalkanoates
      • 17.5.2.4.2. Polylactic acid
    • 17.5.2.5. Other natural polymers
      • 17.5.2.5.1. Lignin
        • 17.5.2.5.1.1 Description
        • 17.5.2.5.1.2 Applications and commercial status
      • 17.5.2.5.2. Alginate
        • 17.5.2.5.2.1 Applications and commercial status
  • 17.5.3. Waterless Formulations
  • 17.5.4. Companies
• 17.6. Bio-based and Eco-Friendly Paints and Coatings
  • 17.6.1. UV-cure
  • 17.6.2. Waterborne coatings
  • 17.6.3. Treatments with less or no solvents
  • 17.6.4. Hyperbranched polymers for coatings
  • 17.6.5. Powder coatings
  • 17.6.6. High solid (HS) coatings
  • 17.6.7. Use of bio-based materials in coatings
    • 17.6.7.1. Biopolymers
    • 17.6.7.2. Coatings based on agricultural waste
    • 17.6.7.3. Vegetable oils and fatty acids
    • 17.6.7.4. Proteins
    • 17.6.7.5. Cellulose
    • 17.6.7.6. Plant-Based wax coatings
  • 17.6.8. Barrier coatings
    • 17.6.8.1. Polysaccharides
      • 17.6.8.1.1. Chitin
      • 17.6.8.1.2. Chitosan
      • 17.6.8.1.3. Starch
    • 17.6.8.2. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
    • 17.6.8.3. Poly(butylene Succinate
    • 17.6.8.4. Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings
  • 17.6.9. Alkyd coatings
    • 17.6.9.1. Alkyd resin properties
    • 17.6.9.2. Bio-based alkyd coatings
    • 17.6.9.3. Products
  • 17.6.10. Polyurethane coatings
    • 17.6.10.1. Properties
    • 17.6.10.2. Bio-based polyurethane coatings
      • 17.6.10.2.1. Bio-based polyols
      • 17.6.10.2.2. Non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU)
    • 17.6.10.3. Products
  • 17.6.11. Epoxy coatings
    • 17.6.11.1. Properties
    • 17.6.11.2. Bio-based epoxy coatings
    • 17.6.11.3. Products
  • 17.6.12. Acrylate resins
    • 17.6.12.1. Properties
    • 17.6.12.2. Bio-based acrylates
    • 17.6.12.3. Products
  • 17.6.13. Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA)
    • 17.6.13.1. Bio-PLA coatings and films
  • 17.6.14. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
  • 17.6.15. Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)
  • 17.6.16. Cellulose nanofibers
  • 17.6.17. Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
  • 17.6.18. Rosins
  • 17.6.19. Bio-based carbon black
    • 17.6.19.1. Lignin-based
    • 17.6.19.2. Algae-based
  • 17.6.20. Lignin
  • 17.6.21. Antimicrobial films and agents
    • 17.6.21.1. Natural
    • 17.6.21.2. Inorganic nanoparticles
    • 17.6.21.3. Biopolymers
  • 17.6.22. Nanocoatings
  • 17.6.23. Protein-based biomaterials for coatings
    • 17.6.23.1. Plant derived proteins
    • 17.6.23.2. Animal origin proteins
  • 17.6.24. Algal coatings
  • 17.6.25. Polypeptides
  • 17.6.26. Companies
• 17.7. Green Electronics
  • 17.7.1. Biodegradable Electronics
  • 17.7.2. Recycled and Recoverable Electronic Materials
  • 17.7.3. Conventional electronics manufacturing
  • 17.7.4. Benefits of Green Electronics manufacturing
  • 17.7.5. Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing
  • 17.7.6. Green Electronics Manufacturing
  • 17.7.7. Sustainability in PCB manufacturing
    • 17.7.7.1. Sustainable cleaning of PCBs
  • 17.7.8. Design of PCBs for sustainability
    • 17.7.8.1. Rigid
    • 17.7.8.2. Flexible
    • 17.7.8.3. Additive manufacturing
    • 17.7.8.4. In-mold elctronics (IME)
  • 17.7.9. Materials
    • 17.7.9.1. Metal cores
    • 17.7.9.2. Recycled laminates
    • 17.7.9.3. Conductive inks
    • 17.7.9.4. Green and lead-free solder
    • 17.7.9.5. Biodegradable substrates
      • 17.7.9.5.1. Bacterial Cellulose
      • 17.7.9.5.2. Mycelium
      • 17.7.9.5.3. Lignin
      • 17.7.9.5.4. Cellulose Nanofibers
      • 17.7.9.5.5. Soy Protein
      • 17.7.9.5.6. Algae
      • 17.7.9.5.7. PHAs
    • 17.7.9.6. Biobased inks
  • 17.7.10. Substrates
    • 17.7.10.1. Halogen-free FR4
      • 17.7.10.1.1. FR4 limitations
      • 17.7.10.1.2. FR4 alternatives
      • 17.7.10.1.3. Bio-Polyimide
    • 17.7.10.2. Metal-core PCBs
    • 17.7.10.3. Biobased PCBs
      • 17.7.10.3.1. Flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs
      • 17.7.10.3.2. Recent commercial activity
    • 17.7.10.4. Paper-based PCBs
    • 17.7.10.5. PCBs without solder mask
    • 17.7.10.6. Thinner dielectrics
    • 17.7.10.7. Recycled plastic substrates
    • 17.7.10.8. Flexible substrates
  • 17.7.11. Sustainable patterning and metallization in electronics manufacturing
    • 17.7.11.1. Introduction
    • 17.7.11.2. Issues with sustainability
    • 17.7.11.3. Regeneration and reuse of etching chemicals
    • 17.7.11.4. Transition from Wet to Dry phase patterning
    • 17.7.11.5. Print-and-plate
    • 17.7.11.6. Approaches
      • 17.7.11.6.1. Direct Printed Electronics
      • 17.7.11.6.2. Photonic Sintering
      • 17.7.11.6.3. Biometallization
      • 17.7.11.6.4. Plating Resist Alternatives
      • 17.7.11.6.5. Laser-Induced Forward Transfer
      • 17.7.11.6.6. Electrohydrodynamic Printing
      • 17.7.11.6.7. Electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs
      • 17.7.11.6.8. Green electroless plating
      • 17.7.11.6.9. Smart Masking
      • 17.7.11.6.10 Component Integration
      • 17.7.11.6.11 Bio-inspired material deposition
      • 17.7.11.6.12 Multi-material jetting
      • 17.7.11.6.13 Vacuumless deposition
      • 17.7.11.6.14 Upcycling waste streams
  • 17.7.12. Sustainable attachment and integration of components
    • 17.7.12.1. Conventional component attachment materials
    • 17.7.12.2. Materials
      • 17.7.12.2.1. Conductive adhesives
      • 17.7.12.2.2. Biodegradable adhesives
      • 17.7.12.2.3. Magnets
      • 17.7.12.2.4. Bio-based solders
      • 17.7.12.2.5. Bio-derived solders
      • 17.7.12.2.6. Recycled plastics
      • 17.7.12.2.7. Nano adhesives
      • 17.7.12.2.8. Shape memory polymers
      • 17.7.12.2.9. Photo-reversible polymers
      • 17.7.12.2.10 Conductive biopolymers
    • 17.7.12.3. Processes
      • 17.7.12.3.1. Traditional thermal processing methods
      • 17.7.12.3.2. Low temperature solder
      • 17.7.12.3.3. Reflow soldering
      • 17.7.12.3.4. Induction soldering
      • 17.7.12.3.5. UV curing
      • 17.7.12.3.6. Near-infrared (NIR) radiation curing
      • 17.7.12.3.7. Photonic sintering/curing
      • 17.7.12.3.8. Hybrid integration
  • 17.7.13. Sustainable integrated circuits
    • 17.7.13.1. IC manufacturing
    • 17.7.13.2. Sustainable IC manufacturing
    • 17.7.13.3. Wafer production
      • 17.7.13.3.1. Silicon
      • 17.7.13.3.2. Gallium nitride ICs
      • 17.7.13.3.3. Flexible ICs
      • 17.7.13.3.4. Fully printed organic ICs
    • 17.7.13.4. Oxidation methods
      • 17.7.13.4.1. Sustainable oxidation
      • 17.7.13.4.2. Metal oxides
      • 17.7.13.4.3. Recycling
      • 17.7.13.4.4. Thin gate oxide layers
    • 17.7.13.5. Patterning and doping
      • 17.7.13.5.1. Processes
        • 17.7.13.5.1.1. Wet etching
        • 17.7.13.5.1.2. Dry plasma etching
        • 17.7.13.5.1.3. Lift-off patterning
        • 17.7.13.5.1.4. Surface doping
    • 17.7.13.6. Metallization
      • 17.7.13.6.1. Evaporation
      • 17.7.13.6.2. Plating
      • 17.7.13.6.3. Printing
        • 17.7.13.6.3.1. Printed metal gates for organic thin film transistors
      • 17.7.13.6.4. Physical vapour deposition (PVD)
  • 17.7.14. End of life
    • 17.7.14.1. Hazardous waste
    • 17.7.14.2. Emissions
    • 17.7.14.3. Water Usage
    • 17.7.14.4. Recycling
      • 17.7.14.4.1. Mechanical recycling
      • 17.7.14.4.2. Electro-Mechanical Separation
      • 17.7.14.4.3. Chemical Recycling
      • 17.7.14.4.4. Electrochemical Processes
      • 17.7.14.4.5. Thermal Recycling
  • 17.7.15. Green Certification
  • 17.7.16. Companies
• 17.8. Sustainable Textiles and Fibers
  • 17.8.1. Types of bio-based fibres
    • 17.8.1.1. Natural fibres
    • 17.8.1.2. Main-made bio-based fibres
  • 17.8.2. Bio-based synthetics
  • 17.8.3. Recyclability of bio-based fibres
  • 17.8.4. Lyocell
  • 17.8.5. Bacterial cellulose
  • 17.8.6. Algae textiles
  • 17.8.7. Bio-based leather
    • 17.8.7.1. Properties of bio-based leathers
      • 17.8.7.1.1. Tear strength.
      • 17.8.7.1.2. Tensile strength
      • 17.8.7.1.3. Bally flexing
    • 17.8.7.2. Comparison with conventional leathers
    • 17.8.7.3. Comparative analysis of bio-based leathers
    • 17.8.7.4. Plant-based leather
      • 17.8.7.4.1. Overview
      • 17.8.7.4.2. Production processes
        • 17.8.7.4.2.1 Feedstocks
        • 17.8.7.4.2.1 Agriculture Residues
        • 17.8.7.4.2.2 Food Processing Waste
        • 17.8.7.4.2.3 Invasive Plants
        • 17.8.7.4.2.4 Culture-Grown Inputs
        • 17.8.7.4.2.5 Textile-Based
        • 17.8.7.4.2.6 Bio-Composite
      • 17.8.7.4.3. Products
      • 17.8.7.4.4. Market players
    • 17.8.7.5. Mycelium leather
      • 17.8.7.5.1. Overview
      • 17.8.7.5.2. Production process
        • 17.8.7.5.2.1 Growth conditions
        • 17.8.7.5.2.2 Tanning Mycelium Leather
        • 17.8.7.5.2.3 Dyeing Mycelium Leather
      • 17.8.7.5.3. Products
      • 17.8.7.5.4. Market players
    • 17.8.7.6. Microbial leather
      • 17.8.7.6.1. Overview
      • 17.8.7.6.2. Production process
      • 17.8.7.6.3. Fermentation conditions
      • 17.8.7.6.4. Harvesting
      • 17.8.7.6.5. Products
      • 17.8.7.6.6. Market players
    • 17.8.7.7. Lab grown leather
      • 17.8.7.7.1. Overview
      • 17.8.7.7.2. Production process
      • 17.8.7.7.3. Products
      • 17.8.7.7.4. Market players
    • 17.8.7.8. Protein-based leather
      • 17.8.7.8.1. Overview
      • 17.8.7.8.2. Production process
      • 17.8.7.8.3. Commercial activity
    • 17.8.7.9. Sustainable textiles coatings and dyes
      • 17.8.7.9.1. Overview
        • 17.8.7.9.1.1 Coatings
        • 17.8.7.9.1.2 Dyes
      • 17.8.7.9.2. Commercial activity
  • 17.8.8. Companies
• 17.9. Alternative Fuels and Lubricants
  • 17.9.1. Biofuels and Synthetic Fuels
  • 17.9.2. Biodiesel
    • 17.9.2.1. Biodiesel by generation
    • 17.9.2.2. Production of biodiesel and other biofuels
      • 17.9.2.2.1. Pyrolysis of biomass
      • 17.9.2.2.2. Vegetable oil transesterification
      • 17.9.2.2.3. Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO)
        • 17.9.2.2.3.1 Production process
      • 17.9.2.2.4. Biodiesel from tall oil
      • 17.9.2.2.5. Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel
      • 17.9.2.2.6. Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass
      • 17.9.2.2.7. CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
      • 17.9.2.2.8. Dymethyl ether (DME)
    • 17.9.2.3. Prices
    • 17.9.2.4. Global production and consumption
  • 17.9.3. Renewable diesel
    • 17.9.3.1. Production
    • 17.9.3.2. SWOT analysis
    • 17.9.3.3. Global consumption
    • 17.9.3.4. Prices
  • 17.9.4. Bio-aviation fuel (bio-jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel, renewable jet fuel or aviation biofuel)
    • 17.9.4.1. Description
    • 17.9.4.2. SWOT analysis
    • 17.9.4.3. Global production and consumption
    • 17.9.4.4. Production pathways
    • 17.9.4.5. Prices
    • 17.9.4.6. Bio-aviation fuel production capacities
    • 17.9.4.7. Market challenges
    • 17.9.4.8. Global consumption
  • 17.9.5. Bio-naphtha
    • 17.9.5.1. Overview
    • 17.9.5.2. SWOT analysis
    • 17.9.5.3. Markets and applications
    • 17.9.5.4. Prices
    • 17.9.5.5. Production capacities, by producer, current and planned
    • 17.9.5.6. Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned
  • 17.9.6. Biomethanol
    • 17.9.6.1. SWOT analysis
    • 17.9.6.2. Methanol-to gasoline technology
      • 17.9.6.2.1. Production processes
        • 17.9.6.2.1.1 Anaerobic digestion
        • 17.9.6.2.1.2 Biomass gasification
        • 17.9.6.2.1.3 Power to Methane
  • 17.9.7. Ethanol
    • 17.9.7.1. Technology description
    • 17.9.7.2. 1G Bio-Ethanol
    • 17.9.7.3. SWOT analysis
    • 17.9.7.4. Ethanol to jet fuel technology
    • 17.9.7.5. Methanol from pulp & paper production
    • 17.9.7.6. Sulfite spent liquor fermentation
    • 17.9.7.7. Gasification
      • 17.9.7.7.1. Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation
      • 17.9.7.7.2. Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion
    • 17.9.7.8. CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis
    • 17.9.7.9. Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation
      • 17.9.7.9.1. Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
      • 17.9.7.9.2. Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF)
      • 17.9.7.9.3. Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF)
      • 17.9.7.9.4. Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF)
      • 17.9.7.9.5. Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP)
    • 17.9.7.10. Global ethanol consumption
  • 17.9.8. Biobutanol
    • 17.9.8.1. Production
    • 17.9.8.2. Prices
  • 17.9.9. Biomass-based Gas
    • 17.9.9.1. Biomethane
    • 17.9.9.2. Production pathways
      • 17.9.9.2.1. Landfill gas recovery
      • 17.9.9.2.2. Anaerobic digestion
      • 17.9.9.2.3. Thermal gasification
    • 17.9.9.3. SWOT analysis
    • 17.9.9.4. Global production
    • 17.9.9.5. Prices
      • 17.9.9.5.1. Raw Biogas
      • 17.9.9.5.2. Upgraded Biomethane
    • 17.9.9.6. Bio-LNG
      • 17.9.9.6.1. Markets
        • 17.9.9.6.1.1 Trucks
        • 17.9.9.6.1.2 Marine
      • 17.9.9.6.2. Production
      • 17.9.9.6.3. Plants
    • 17.9.9.7. bio-CNG (compressed natural gas derived from biogas)
    • 17.9.9.8. Carbon capture from biogas
  • 17.9.10. Biosyngas
    • 17.9.10.1. Production
    • 17.9.10.2. Prices
  • 17.9.11. Biohydrogen
    • 17.9.11.1. Description
    • 17.9.11.2. SWOT analysis
    • 17.9.11.3. Production of biohydrogen from biomass
      • 17.9.11.3.1. Biological Conversion Routes
        • 17.9.11.3.1.1. Bio-photochemical Reaction
        • 17.9.11.3.1.2. Fermentation and Anaerobic Digestion
      • 17.9.11.3.2. Thermochemical conversion routes
        • 17.9.11.3.2.1. Biomass Gasification
        • 17.9.11.3.2.2. Biomass Pyrolysis
        • 17.9.11.3.2.3. Biomethane Reforming
    • 17.9.11.4. Applications
    • 17.9.11.5. Prices
  • 17.9.12. Biochar in biogas production
  • 17.9.13. Bio-DME
  • 17.9.14. Chemical recycling for biofuels
    • 17.9.14.1. Plastic pyrolysis
    • 17.9.14.2. Used tires pyrolysis
      • 17.9.14.2.1. Conversion to biofuel
    • 17.9.14.3. Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes
    • 17.9.14.4. Gasification
      • 17.9.14.4.1. Syngas conversion to methanol
      • 17.9.14.4.2. Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation
      • 17.9.14.4.3. Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion
    • 17.9.14.5. Hydrothermal cracking
  • 17.9.15. Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels)
    • 17.9.15.1. Introduction
    • 17.9.15.2. Benefits of e-fuels
    • 17.9.15.3. Feedstocks
      • 17.9.15.3.1. Hydrogen electrolysis
    • 17.9.15.4. CO2 capture
    • 17.9.15.5. Production
      • 17.9.15.5.1. eFuel production facilities, current and planned
    • 17.9.15.6. Companies
  • 17.9.16. Algae-derived biofuels
    • 17.9.16.1. Technology description
      • 17.9.16.1.1. Conversion pathways
    • 17.9.16.2. Production
    • 17.9.16.3. Market challenges
    • 17.9.16.4. Prices
    • 17.9.16.5. Producers
  • 17.9.17. Green Ammonia
    • 17.9.17.1. Production
      • 17.9.17.1.1. Decarbonisation of ammonia production
      • 17.9.17.1.2. Green ammonia projects
    • 17.9.17.2. Green ammonia synthesis methods
      • 17.9.17.2.1. Haber-Bosch process
      • 17.9.17.2.2. Biological nitrogen fixation
      • 17.9.17.2.3. Electrochemical production
      • 17.9.17.2.4. Chemical looping processes
    • 17.9.17.3. Blue ammonia
      • 17.9.17.3.1. Blue ammonia projects
      • 17.9.17.3.2. Markets and applications
      • 17.9.17.3.3. Chemical energy storage
      • 17.9.17.3.4. Ammonia fuel cells
      • 17.9.17.3.5. Marine fuel
      • 17.9.17.3.6. Prices
    • 17.9.17.4. Companies and projects
  • 17.9.18. Bio-oils (pyrolysis oils)
    • 17.9.18.1. Description
      • 17.9.18.1.1. Advantages of bio-oils
    • 17.9.18.2. Production
      • 17.9.18.2.1. Fast Pyrolysis
      • 17.9.18.2.2. Costs of production
      • 17.9.18.2.3. Upgrading
    • 17.9.18.3. Applications
    • 17.9.18.4. Bio-oil producers
    • 17.9.18.5. Prices
  • 17.9.19. Refuse Derived Fuels (RDF)
    • 17.9.19.1. Overview
    • 17.9.19.2. Production
      • 17.9.19.2.1. Production process
      • 17.9.19.2.2. Mechanical biological treatment
    • 17.9.19.3. Markets
  • 17.9.20. Bio-based Lubricants
  • 17.9.21. Companies
• 17.10 Green Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare
  • 17.10.1. Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis
    • 17.10.1.1. Green Solvents
      • 17.10.1.1.1. Supercritical CO2 (scCO2)
      • 17.10.1.1.2. Ionic Liquids
      • 17.10.1.1.3. Bio-based Solvents
      • 17.10.1.1.4. Water-based Reactions
    • 17.10.1.2. Catalysis
      • 17.10.1.2.1. Biocatalysis (Enzymes and Whole-cell Catalysts)
      • 17.10.1.2.2. Heterogeneous Catalysts
      • 17.10.1.2.3. Organocatalysts
      • 17.10.1.2.4. Photocatalysis
    • 17.10.1.3. Continuous Flow Chemistry
      • 17.10.1.3.1. Microreactors
      • 17.10.1.3.2. Flow Photochemistry
      • 17.10.1.3.3. Electrochemical Flow Cells
    • 17.10.1.4. Alternative Energy Sources
      • 17.10.1.4.1. Microwave-assisted Synthesis
      • 17.10.1.4.2. Ultrasound-assisted Reactions
      • 17.10.1.4.3. Mechanochemistry (Ball Milling)
    • 17.10.1.5. Green Oxidation and Reduction Methods
      • 17.10.1.5.1. Electrochemical oxidation/reduction
      • 17.10.1.5.2. Photochemical reactions
      • 17.10.1.5.3. Hydrogen peroxide as green oxidant
    • 17.10.1.6. Atom-Economical Reactions
    • 17.10.1.7. Bio-based Starting Materials
    • 17.10.1.8. Process Intensification
    • 17.10.1.9. Green Analytical Techniques
    • 17.10.1.10. Sustainable Purification Methods
  • 17.10.2. Bio-based Drug Delivery Systems
    • 17.10.2.1. Natural polymers
      • 17.10.2.1.1. Chitosan and its derivatives
      • 17.10.2.1.2. Alginate
      • 17.10.2.1.3. Hyaluronic acid
      • 17.10.2.1.4. Cellulose and its derivatives
    • 17.10.2.2. Protein-based Materials
      • 17.10.2.2.1. Albumin nanoparticles
      • 17.10.2.2.2. Collagen matrices
      • 17.10.2.2.3. Silk fibroin scaffolds
      • 17.10.2.2.4. Gelatin hydrogels
    • 17.10.2.3. Polysaccharide-based Systems
      • 17.10.2.3.1. Cyclodextrins
      • 17.10.2.3.2. Pectin
      • 17.10.2.3.3. Dextran
      • 17.10.2.3.4. Pullulan
    • 17.10.2.4. Lipid-based Carriers
      • 17.10.2.4.1. Liposomes from natural phospholipids
      • 17.10.2.4.2. Solid lipid nanoparticles
      • 17.10.2.4.3. Nanostructured lipid carriers
    • 17.10.2.5. Plant-derived Materials
      • 17.10.2.5.1. Guar gum
      • 17.10.2.5.2. Carrageenan
      • 17.10.2.5.3. Zein (corn protein)
      • 17.10.2.5.4. Starch-based materials
    • 17.10.2.6. Microbial-derived Polymers
      • 17.10.2.6.1. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
      • 17.10.2.6.2. Bacterial cellulose
      • 17.10.2.6.3. Xanthan gum
    • 17.10.2.7. Stimuli-responsive Biopolymers
      • 17.10.2.7.1. pH-sensitive alginate derivatives
      • 17.10.2.7.2. Thermoresponsive chitosan systems
      • 17.10.2.7.3. Enzyme-responsive materials
    • 17.10.2.8. Bioconjugation Techniques
      • 17.10.2.8.1. Click chemistry for polymer modification
      • 17.10.2.8.2. Enzyme-catalyzed conjugation
      • 17.10.2.8.3. Photo-initiated crosslinking
    • 17.10.2.9. Sustainable Particle Formation
      • 17.10.2.9.1. Spray-drying with green solvents
      • 17.10.2.9.2. Electrospinning of biopolymers
      • 17.10.2.9.3. Supercritical fluid-assisted particle formation
  • 17.10.3. Sustainable Medical Devices
  • 17.10.4. Personalized Chemistry in Medicine
    • 17.10.4.1. Tailored Drug Delivery Systems
    • 17.10.4.2. Personalized Diagnostic Materials
    • 17.10.4.3. Custom-synthesized Therapeutics
    • 17.10.4.4. Biocompatible Materials for Implants
    • 17.10.4.5. 3D-printed Pharmaceuticals
    • 17.10.4.6. Personalized Nutrient Formulations
  • 17.10.5. Companies
• 17.11. Advanced Materials for 3D Printing
  • 17.11.1. Bio-based 3D Printing Resins
  • 17.11.2. Recyclable and Reusable 3D Printing Materials
  • 17.11.3. Functional and Smart 3D Printing Materials
  • 17.11.4. Companies
• 17.12. Artificial Intelligence in Chemical Design
  • 17.12.1. Machine Learning for Molecular Design
  • 17.12.2. AI-driven Retrosynthesis Planning
  • 17.12.3. Predictive Modelling of Chemical Properties
  • 17.12.4. AI in Process Optimization
  • 17.12.5. Automated Lab Systems and Robotics
  • 17.12.6. AI for Materials Discovery and Development
• 17.13. Quantum Chemistry Applications
  • 17.13.1. Quantum Computing for Molecular Simulations
  • 17.13.2. Quantum Sensors in Chemical Analysis
  • 17.13.3. Quantum-inspired Algorithms for Property Prediction
  • 17.13.4. Quantum Approaches to Catalyst Design
  • 17.13.5. Quantum Chemistry in Drug Discovery
  • 17.13.6. Quantum Effects in Nanomaterials
  • 17.13.7. Companies

18. ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND BUSINESS MODELS

• 18.1. Cost Competitiveness of Sustainable Chemical Technologies
• 18.2. Investment Trends in Green Chemistry
• 18.3. New Business Models in the Circular Economy
• 18.4. Market Dynamics and Consumer Preferences
• 18.5. Intellectual Property Considerations
• 18.6. Case Studies
  • 18.6.1. Bio-based Production of Bulk Chemicals
  • 18.6.2. CO2 to Polymers: Innovating in Materials
  • 18.6.3. Waste Plastic to Fuels and Chemicals
  • 18.6.4. Green Pharmaceutical Manufacturing
  • 18.6.5. Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals
  • 18.6.6. Circular Economy in Action: Closing the Loop in Packaging
  • 18.6.7. Revolutionizing Textiles: From Petrochemicals to Bio-based Fibers

19. FUTURE OUTLOOK AND EMERGING TRENDS

• 19.1. Convergence of Bio, Nano, and Information Technologies
• 19.2. Quantum Computing in Chemical Research and Development
• 19.3. Space-based Manufacturing of Chemicals
• 19.4. Artificial Photosynthesis and Solar Fuels
• 19.5. Personalized and On-demand Chemical Manufacturing
• 19.6. The Role of Chemistry in Achieving Net-Zero Emissions
• 19.7. Circular Economy Solutions
• 19.8. Artificial Intelligence and Digitalization Impact
• 19.9. Quantum Chemistry Prospects

20. APPENDICES

• 20.1. Glossary of Terms
• 20.2. List of Abbreviations
• 20.3. Research Methodology

21. REFERENCES

List of Tables

• Table 1. Global drivers and trends in sustainable chemicals
• Table 2. Role of Digitalization and Industry 4.0 in Sustainable Chemicals
• Table 3. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in agriculture
• Table 4. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Green Cosmetics and Personal Care
• Table 5. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Sustainable Packaging
• Table 6. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings
• Table 7. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Alternative Fuels and Lubricants
• Table 8. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare
• Table 9. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Water Treatment and Purification
• Table 10. Sustainable Chemicals and Materials in Carbon Capture and Utilization
• Table 11. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Advanced Materials for 3D Printing
• Table 12. Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy
• Table 13. Comparison of traditional and sustainable chemical feedstocks
• Table 14. Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions
• Table 15. Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies
• Table 16. Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization
• Table 17. CO2 Capture Technologies
• Table 18. Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2
• Table 19. Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization
• Table 20. Industrial Waste Streams and By-products
• Table 21. Electrolysis Technologies
• Table 22. Types of biocatalysts
• Table 23. Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements
• Table 24. Photocatalysis vs Electrocatalysis
• Table 25. Applications of chemically recycled materials
• Table 26. Summary of non-catalytic pyrolysis technologies
• Table 27. Summary of catalytic pyrolysis technologies
• Table 28. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions
• Table 29. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield
• Table 30. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process
• Table 31. Pyrolysis companies and plant capacities, current and planned
• Table 32. Summary of gasification technologies
• Table 33. Advanced recycling (Gasification) companies
• Table 34. Summary of dissolution technologies
• Table 35. Advanced recycling (Dissolution) companies
• Table 36. Depolymerisation processes for PET, PU, PC and PA, products and yields
• Table 37. Summary of hydrolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers
• Table 38. Summary of Enzymolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers
• Table 39. Summary of methanolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers
• Table 40. Summary of glycolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers
• Table 41. Summary of aminolysis technologies
• Table 42. Advanced recycling (Depolymerisation) companies and capacities (current and planned)
• Table 43. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling
• Table 44. Overview of Pyrolysis with in-line reforming for advanced chemical recycling
• Table 45. Overview of microwave-assisted pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling
• Table 46. Overview of plasma pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling
• Table 47. Overview of plasma gasification for advanced chemical recycling
• Table 48. Key methods used in upcycling chemical waste
• Table 49. Circular Business Models in the Chemical Sector
• Table 50.Challenges and Opportunities
• Table 51. Chemical recycling companies
• Table 52. Methods of electrochemical synthesis
• Table 53. P2X integration in chemical production
• Table 54. AI and ML applications in the chemical industry
• Table 55. Key components and applications of digital twins in chemical plant operations
• Table 56. Key cybersecurity challenges in the digitalized chemical industry
• Table 57. Types of advanced manufacturing technologies in the chemical industry
• Table 58. Key Features of Microreactors and Process Intensification
• Table 59. Advantages in Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals
• Table 60. Challenges in Scale-up and Implementation
• Table 61. Advantages of Modular and Distributed Manufacturing
• Table 62. Challenges in Implementing Modular and Distributed Manufacturing
• Table 63. Comparison of Direct Ink Writing and Reactive Printing
• Table 64. Applications in Custom Synthesis and Formulation
• Table 65. Components of Flexible and Adaptable Production Systems
• Table 66. Feedstock-based Classification
• Table 67. Platform-based Classification
• Table 68. Product-based Classification
• Table 69. Process Integration Strategies in Biorefineries
• Table 70. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers
• Table 71. Algal Biorefinery Products
• Table 72. Types of Cell Culture Systems
• Table 73. Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance
• Table 74. Types of Fermentation Processes
• Table 75. Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance
• Table 76. Advances in Fermentation Technology
• Table 77. Types of Purification Methods in Downstream Processing
• Table 78. Factors Affecting Purification Performance
• Table 79. Advances in Purification Technology
• Table 80. Common formulation methods used in biomanufacturing
• Table 81. Factors Affecting Formulation Performance
• Table 82. Advances in Formulation Technology
• Table 83. Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance in Biomanufacturing
• Table 84. Scale-up Strategies in Biomanufacturing
• Table 85. Factors Affecting Optimization Performance in Biomanufacturing
• Table 86. Optimization Strategies in Biomanufacturing
• Table 87. Types of Quality Control Tests in Biomanufacturing
• Table 88.Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance in Biomanufacturing
• Table 89. Factors Affecting Characterization Performance in Biomanufacturing
• Table 90. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes
• Table 91. Major microbial cell factories used in industrial biomanufacturing
• Table 92. Comparison of Modes of Operation
• Table 93. Host organisms commonly used in biomanufacturing
• Table 94. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages
• Table 95. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$)
• Table 96. Carbon utilization business models
• Table 97. CO2 utilization and removal pathways
• Table 98. Market challenges for CO2 utilization
• Table 99. Example CO2 utilization pathways
• Table 100. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages
• Table 101. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages
• Table 102. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages
• Table 103. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers
• Table 104. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies
• Table 105. Comparison of emerging CO2 utilization applications
• Table 106. Main routes to CO2-fuels
• Table 107. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels
• Table 108. Main routes to CO2 -fuels
• Table 109. Power-to-Methane projects
• Table 110. Microalgae products and prices
• Table 111. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches
• Table 112. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products
• Table 113. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2
• Table 114. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products
• Table 115. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector
• Table 116. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets
• Table 117. CO2 utilization business models in building materials
• Table 118. Companies in CO2 derived building materials
• Table 119. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials
• Table 120. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting
• Table 121. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production
• Table 122. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges
• Table 123. Comparison of types of biocatalysts
• Table 124. Types of Microorganism Biocatalysts
• Table 125. Examples of fungal hosts
• Table 126. Commonly used yeast hosts
• Table 127. Common Algal Species Used in Biocatalysis and Their Applications
• Table 128. Common Cyanobacterial Species Used in Biocatalysis and Their Applications
• Table 129. Comparison of Algae and Cyanobacteria in Biocatalysis
• Table 130. Types of Engineered Biocatalysts
• Table 131. Types of Detergent Enzymes
• Table 132.Types of Food Processing Enzymes
• Table 133. Types of Textile Processing Enzymes
• Table 134. Types of Paper and Pulp Processing Enzymes
• Table 135. Types of Leather Processing Enzymes
• Table 136. Types of Biofuel Production Enzymes
• Table 137. Types of Animal Feed Enzymes
• Table 138. Types of Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Enzymes
• Table 139. Types of Waste Management and Bioremediation Enzymes
• Table 140. Types of Agriculture and Crop Improvement Enzymes
• Table 141. Comparison of enzyme types
• Table 142. Other Types of Biocatalysts
• Table 143. Production methods for biocatalysts
• Table 144. Fermentation processes
• Table 145. Waste-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced
• Table 146. Microbial and mineral-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced
• Table 147. Comparison of Cell-Free Protein Synthesis Systems
• Table 148. Key biomanufacturing processes utilized in synthetic biology
• Table 149. Molecules produced through industrial biomanufacturing
• Table 150. Continuous vs batch biomanufacturing
• Table 151. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes
• Table 152. Synthetic biology fermentation processes
• Table 153. Cell-free versus cell-based systems
• Table 154. Key applications of genome engineering
• Table 155. Comparison of Immobilization and Encapsulation Techniques
• Table 156. Types of Nanoparticle Biocatalysts
• Table 157. Types of Biocatalytic Cascades and Multi-Enzyme Systems
• Table 158. Key aspects of microfluidics in biocatalysts
• Table 159. Companies developing biocatalysts
• Table 160. Key tools and techniques used in metabolic engineering for pathway optimization
• Table 161. Key applications of metabolic engineering
• Table 162. Main DNA synthesis technologies
• Table 163. Main gene assembly methods
• Table 164. Key applications of genome engineering
• Table 165. Engineered proteins in industrial applications
• Table 166.Key computational tools and their applications in synthetic biology
• Table 167. Feedstocks for synthetic biology
• Table 168. Products from C1 feedstocks in white biotechnology
• Table 169. C2 Feedstock Products
• Table 170. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages
• Table 171. Common starch sources that can be used as feedstocks for producing biochemicals
• Table 172. Biomass processes summary, process description and TRL
• Table 173. Pathways for hydrogen production from biomass
• Table 174. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size
• Table 175. Synthetic Biology Market Players
• Table 176. Types of bio-based solvents
• Table 177. Solvent Selection Tools and Frameworks
• Table 178. Companies developing bio-based solvents
• Table 179. MSW-to-chemicals processes
• Table 180. Agricultural and food waste valorization approaches
• Table 181. Value Proposition for Critical Material Extraction Technologies
• Table 182. Critical Material Extraction Methods Evaluated by Key Performance Metrics
• Table 183. Critical Rare-Earth Element Recovery Technologies from Secondary Sources
• Table 184. Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery Methods-Metal, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Environmental Impact, Economic Viability
• Table 185. Critical Semiconductor Materials Recovery-Material, Primary Source, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Potential Applications
• Table 186. Critical Semiconductor Material Recovery from Secondary Sources
• Table 187. Critical Platinum Group Metal Recovery
• Table 188. Bio-based flocculants and coagulants
• Table 189. Bio-based polymer membranes
• Table 190. Ceramic membranes from recycled materials
• Table 191. Types of Advanced adsorbents
• Table 192. Nutrient recovery technologies
• Table 193. Resource recovery processes:
• Table 194. Types of bioelectrochemical systems
• Table 195. Types of green solvents used in extraction processes
• Table 196. Types of biodegradable chelating agents
• Table 197. Types of biocatalysts used in wastewater treatment
• Table 198. Types of advanced adsorption materials
• Table 199. Types of sustainable pH adjustment chemicals
• Table 200. Green Lixiviants for Metal Extraction
• Table 201. Sustainable Flotation Chemicals
• Table 202. Electrochemical Recovery Methods
• Table 203. Geopolymers and Mine Tailings Utilization
• Table 204. Sustainable remediation technologies
• Table 205. Waste-to-energy technologies
• Table 206. Advanced separation techniques
• Table 207. Companies in waste valorization and resource recovery
• Table 208. Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants
• Table 209. Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production
• Table 210. Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries
• Table 211. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems
• Table 212. Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators
• Table 213. Key principles of Safety by Design
• Table 214. Key steps in risk assessment for new chemical technologies
• Table 215. Key components of EIA for chemical processes
• Table 216. Environmental Policies Driving Sustainable Chemistry
• Table 217. Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry
• Table 218. Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies
• Table 219. International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts
• Table 220. LDPE film versus PLA, 2019-24 (USD/tonne)
• Table 221. PLA properties
• Table 222. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging
• Table 223. Market overview for cellulose microfibers (microfibrillated cellulose) in paperboard and packaging-market age, key benefits, applications and producers
• Table 224. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (CNC)
• Table 225. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in packaging
• Table 226. Applications of Bacterial Nanocellulose in Packaging
• Table 227. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies
• Table 228. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size
• Table 229. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics
• Table 230. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications
• Table 231. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications
• Table 232. Commercial Examples of Chitosan-based Films and Coatings and Companies
• Table 233. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications
• Table 234. Bio-naphtha market value chain
• Table 235. Commercial Examples of Bio-Naphtha Packaging and Companies
• Table 236. Bioplastics and biodegradable polymers market players
• Table 237. Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents
• Table 238. Types of Controlled Release Fertilizers
• Table 239. Common Natural Product Biostimulants and Their Modes of Action
• Table 240. Commercially available microbial bioinsecticides
• Table 241. Common Biochemicals Used in Agriculture
• Table 242. Types of Biopesticides
• Table 243. Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals Market Players
• Table 244. Established bio-based construction materials
• Table 245. Types of self-healing concrete
• Table 246. Types of biobased aerogels
• Table 247. Sustainable Construction Materials Market Players
• Table 248. Pros and cons of different type of food packaging materials
• Table 249. Active Biodegradable Films films and their food applications
• Table 250. Intelligent Biodegradable Films
• Table 251. Edible films and coatings market summary
• Table 252. Types of polyols
• Table 253. Polyol producers
• Table 254. Bio-based polyurethane coating products
• Table 255. Bio-based acrylate resin products
• Table 256. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis
• Table 257. Commercially available PHAs
• Table 258. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings
• Table 259. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers products in paints and coatings
• Table 260. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies
• Table 261. CO2 utilization and removal pathways
• Table 262. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers
• Table 263. Sustainable packaging market players
• Table 264. Natural and Bio-based Ingredients
• Table 265. Biodegradable polymers
• Table 266. CNC properties
• Table 267.Types of PHAs and properties
• Table 268. Technical lignin types and applications
• Table 269. Properties of lignins and their applications
• Table 270. Production capacities of technical lignin producers
• Table 271. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers
• Table 272. Examples of Waterless Formulations
• Table 273. Green Cosmetics and Personal Care Market Players
• Table 274. Example envinronmentally friendly coatings, advantages and disadvantages
• Table 275. Plant Waxes
• Table 276. Types of alkyd resins and properties
• Table 277. Market summary for bio-based alkyd coatings-raw materials, advantages, disadvantages, applications and producers
• Table 278. Bio-based alkyd coating products
• Table 279. Types of polyols
• Table 280. Polyol producers
• Table 281. Bio-based polyurethane coating products
• Table 282. Market summary for bio-based epoxy resins
• Table 283. Bio-based polyurethane coating products
• Table 284. Bio-based acrylate resin products
• Table 285. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis
• Table 286. Market assessment for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings-application, key benefits and motivation for use, megatrends, market drivers, technology drawbacks, competing materials, material loading, main global paints and coatings OEMs
• Table 287. Companies developing CNF products in paints and coatings, applications targeted and stage of commercialization
• Table 288. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies
• Table 289. Overview of algal coatings-description, properties, application and market size
• Table 290. Companies developing algal-based plastics
• Table 291. Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings Market Players
• Table 292. Examples of Biodegradable Electronic Materials and Applications
• Table 293. Benefits of Green Electronics Manufacturing
• Table 294. Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing
• Table 295. Key areas where the PCB industry can improve sustainability
• Table 296. Improving sustainability of PCB design
• Table 297. PCB design options for sustainability
• Table 298. Sustainability benefits and challenges associated with 3D printing
• Table 299. Conductive ink producers
• Table 300. Green and lead-free solder companies
• Table 301. Biodegradable substrates for PCBs
• Table 302. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications
• Table 303. Application of lignin in composites
• Table 304. Properties of lignins and their applications
• Table 305. Properties of flexible electronics-cellulose nanofiber film (nanopaper)
• Table 306. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers for electronics
• Table 307. Commercially available PHAs
• Table 308. Main limitations of the FR4 material system used for manufacturing printed circuit boards (PCBs)
• Table 309. Halogen-free FR4 companies
• Table 310. Properties of biobased PCBs
• Table 311. Applications of flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs
• Table 312. Main patterning and metallization steps in PCB fabrication and sustainable options
• Table 313. Sustainability issues with conventional metallization processes
• Table 314. Benefits of print-and-plate
• Table 315. Sustainable alternative options to standard plating resists used in printed circuit board (PCB) fabrication
• Table 316. Applications for laser induced forward transfer
• Table 317. Copper versus silver inks in laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) for electronics fabrication
• Table 318. Approaches for in-situ oxidation prevention
• Table 319. Market readiness and maturity of different lead-free solders and electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) for electronics manufacturing
• Table 320. Advantages of green electroless plating
• Table 321. Comparison of component attachment materials
• Table 322. Comparison between sustainable and conventional component attachment materials for printed circuit boards
• Table 323. Comparison between the SMAs and SMPs
• Table 324. Comparison of conductive biopolymers versus conventional materials for printed circuit board fabrication
• Table 325. Comparison of curing and reflow processes used for attaching components in electronics assembly
• Table 326. Low temperature solder alloys
• Table 327. Thermally sensitive substrate materials
• Table 328. Limitations of existing IC production
• Table 329. Strategies for improving sustainability in integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing
• Table 330. Comparison of oxidation methods and level of sustainability
• Table 331. Stage of commercialization for oxides
• Table 332. Alternative doping techniques
• Table 333. Metal content mg / Kg in Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) from waste desktop computers
• Table 334. Chemical recycling methods for handling electronic waste
• Table 335. Electrochemical processes for recycling metals from electronic waste
• Table 336. Thermal recycling processes for electronic waste
• Table 337. Green Electronics Market Players
• Table 338. Properties and applications of the main natural fibres
• Table 339. Types of sustainable alternative leathers
• Table 340. Properties of bio-based leathers
• Table 341. Comparison with conventional leathers
• Table 342. Price of commercially available sustainable alternative leather products
• Table 343. Comparative analysis of sustainable alternative leathers
• Table 344. Key processing steps involved in transforming plant fibers into leather materials
• Table 345. Current and emerging plant-based leather products
• Table 346. Companies developing plant-based leather products
• Table 347. Overview of mycelium-description, properties, drawbacks and applications
• Table 348. Companies developing mycelium-based leather products
• Table 349. Types of microbial-derived leather alternative
• Table 350. Companies developing microbial leather products
• Table 351. Companies developing plant-based leather products
• Table 352. Types of protein-based leather alternatives
• Table 353. Companies developing protein based leather
• Table 354. Companies developing sustainable coatings and dyes for leather -
• Table 355. Sustainable Textiles and Fibers Market Players
• Table 356. Biodiesel by generation
• Table 357. Biodiesel production techniques
• Table 358. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions
• Table 359. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield
• Table 360. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process
• Table 361. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel
• Table 362. Main producers of HVO and capacities
• Table 363. Example commercial Development of BtL processes
• Table 364. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes
• Table 365. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year)
• Table 366. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year)
• Table 367. Renewable diesel price ranges
• Table 368. Advantages and disadvantages of Bio-aviation fuel
• Table 369. Production pathways for Bio-aviation fuel
• Table 370. Current and announced Bio-aviation fuel facilities and capacities
• Table 371. Global bio-jet fuel consumption 2019-2035 (Million litres/year)
• Table 372. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications
• Table 373. Bio-naphtha market value chain
• Table 374. Bio-naphtha pricing against petroleum-derived naphtha and related fuel products
• Table 375. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer
• Table 376. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas
• Table 377. Processes in bioethanol production
• Table 378. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic
• Table 379. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres)
• Table 380. Biogas feedstocks
• Table 381. Existing and planned bio-LNG production plants
• Table 382. Methods for capturing carbon dioxide from biogas
• Table 383. Comparison of different Bio-H2 production pathways
• Table 384. Markets and applications for biohydrogen
• Table 385. Summary of gasification technologies
• Table 386. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling
• Table 387. Applications of e-fuels, by type
• Table 388. Overview of e-fuels
• Table 389. Benefits of e-fuels
• Table 390. eFuel production facilities, current and planned
• Table 391. E-fuels companies
• Table 392. Algae-derived biofuel producers
• Table 393. Green ammonia projects (current and planned)
• Table 394. Blue ammonia projects
• Table 395. Ammonia fuel cell technologies
• Table 396. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel
• Table 397. Summary of marine alternative fuels
• Table 398. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia
• Table 399. Main players in green ammonia
• Table 400. Typical composition and physicochemical properties reported for bio-oils and heavy petroleum-derived oils
• Table 401. Properties and characteristics of pyrolysis liquids derived from biomass versus a fuel oil
• Table 402. Main techniques used to upgrade bio-oil into higher-quality fuels
• Table 403. Markets and applications for bio-oil
• Table 404. Bio-oil producers
• Table 405. Key resource recovery technologies
• Table 406. Markets and end uses for refuse-derived fuels (RDF)
• Table 407. Bio-based lubricants
• Table 408. Alternative Fuels and Lubricants Market Players
• Table 409. Types of Green Solvents in Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis
• Table 410. Catalysis Methods in Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis
• Table 411. Alternative Energy Sources in Pharmaceutical Synthesis
• Table 412. Green Oxidation and Reduction Methods
• Table 413. Atom-Economical Reactions
• Table 414. Bio-based Starting Materials
• Table 415. Process Intensification Methods
• Table 416. Green Analytical Techniques
• Table 417. Sustainable Purification Methods
• Table 418. Natural Polymers for Drug Delivery
• Table 419. Protein-based Materials for Drug Delivery
• Table 420. Polysaccharide-based Systems for Drug Delivery
• Table 421. Lipid-based Carriers for Drug Delivery
• Table 422. Plant-derived Materials for Drug Delivery
• Table 423. Microbial-derived Polymers for Drug Delivery
• Table 424. Green Synthesis Methods for Drug Delivery Systems
• Table 425. Stimuli-responsive Biopolymers for Drug Delivery
• Table 426. Bioconjugation Techniques for Drug Delivery Systems
• Table 427. Sustainable Particle Formation Techniques for Drug Delivery
• Table 428. Types of Sustainable Medical Devices
• Table 429. Sustainable Healthcare and Biomedicine Market Players
• Table 430. Types of Bio-based 3D Printing Resins
• Table 431. Types of Recyclable and Reusable 3D Printing Materials
• Table 432. Types of Functional and Smart 3D Printing Materials
• Table 433. Advanced Materials for 3D Printing
• Table 434. Companies in Quantum Chemistry Applications
• Table 435. Cost Competitiveness of Sustainable Chemical Technologies
• Table 436. Investment Trends in Green Chemistry
• Table 437. Business Models in the Circular Economy
• Table 438. Market Dynamics and Consumer Preferences in Sustainable Chemistry
• Table 439. Intellectual Property Considerations
• Table 440. Companies developing quantum algorithms for chemical simulations
• Table 441. Applications in space-based chemical manufacturing
• Table 442. Artificial photosynthesis approaches
• Table 443. Applications and benefits of personalized and on-demand chemical manufacturing
• Table 444. Technologies for achieving Net-Zero
• Table 445. Examples of circular economy solutions in the chemical industry
• Table 446. Applications of AI and digitalization in chemicals
• Table 447. Quantum chemistry applications
• Table 448. Glossary of terms
• Table 449. List of Abbreviations

List of Figures

• Figure 1. CO2 emissions reduction pathway for the chemical sector
• Figure 2. Water extraction methods for natural products
• Figure 3. Circular economy model for the chemical industry
• Figure 4. Schematic layout of a pyrolysis plant
• Figure 5. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline
• Figure 6. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires
• Figure 7. Used tires conversion process
• Figure 8. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm3/h of Syngas
• Figure 9. Overview of biogas utilization
• Figure 10. Biogas and biomethane pathways
• Figure 11. Products obtained through the different solvolysis pathways of PET, PU, and PA
• Figure 12. Siemens gPROMS Digital Twin schematic
• Figure 13. Applications for CO2
• Figure 14. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector
• Figure 15. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services
• Figure 16. Co2 utilization pathways and products
• Figure 17. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion
• Figure 18. Electrochemical CO2 reduction products
• Figure 19. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process
• Figure 20. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels
• Figure 21. Econic catalyst systems
• Figure 22. Mineral carbonation processes
• Figure 23. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates
• Figure 24. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel
• Figure 25. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol
• Figure 26. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c
• Figure 27. Audi synthetic fuels
• Figure 28. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways
• Figure 29. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials
• Figure 30. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials
• Figure 31. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector
• Figure 32. Carbon8 Systems' ACT process
• Figure 33. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process
• Figure 34. Algal cultivation in the desert
• Figure 35. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria
• Figure 36. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR
• Figure 37. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry
• Figure 38. Carbon mineralization pathways
• Figure 39. Cell-free and cell-based protein synthesis systems
• Figure 40. The design-make-test-learn loop of generative biology
• Figure 41. CRISPR/Cas9 & Targeted Genome Editing
• Figure 42. Genetic Circuit-Assisted Smart Microbial Engineering
• Figure 43. Microbial Chassis Development for Natural Product Biosynthesis
• Figure 44. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process
• Figure 45. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels
• Figure 46. Overview of biogas utilization
• Figure 47. Biogas and biomethane pathways
• Figure 48. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production
• Figure 49. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix
• Figure 50. TRL of critical material extraction technologies
• Figure 51. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms
• Figure 52. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals
• Figure 53. CNC slurry
• Figure 54. CNF gel
• Figure 55. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes
• Figure 56. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix
• Figure 57. Luum Temple, constructed from Bamboo
• Figure 58. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam
• Figure 59. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials
• Figure 60. Self-healing concrete test study with cracked concrete (left) and self-healed concrete after 28 days (right)
• Figure 61. Self-healing bacteria crack filler for concrete
• Figure 62. Self-healing bio concrete
• Figure 63. Microalgae based biocement masonry bloc
• Figure 64. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application
• Figure 65. Water soluble packaging by Notpla
• Figure 66. Examples of edible films in food packaging
• Figure 67. Hefcel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test
• Figure 68. Applications for CO2
• Figure 69. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services
• Figure 70. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials
• Figure 71. Schematic of production of powder coatings
• Figure 72. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms
• Figure 73. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application
• Figure 74. Vapor degreasing
• Figure 75. Multi-layered PCB
• Figure 76. 3D printed PCB
• Figure 77. In-mold electronics prototype devices and products
• Figure 78. Silver nanocomposite ink after sintering and resin bonding of discrete electronic components
• Figure 79. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam
• Figure 80. Flexible electronic substrate made from CNF
• Figure 81. CNF composite
• Figure 82. Oji CNF transparent sheets
• Figure 83. Electronic components using cellulose nanofibers as insulating materials
• Figure 84. Dell's Concept Luna laptop
• Figure 85. Direct-write, precision dispensing, and 3D printing platform for 3D printed electronics
• Figure 86. 3D printed circuit boards from Nano Dimension
• Figure 87. Photonic sintering
• Figure 88. Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT)
• Figure 89. Material jetting 3d printing
• Figure 90. Material jetting 3d printing product
• Figure 91. The molecular mechanism of the shape memory effect under different stimuli
• Figure 92. Supercooled Soldering(TM) Technology
• Figure 93. Reflow soldering schematic
• Figure 94. Schematic diagram of induction heating reflow
• Figure 95. Fully-printed organic thin-film transistors and circuitry on one-micron-thick polymer films
• Figure 96. Types of PCBs after dismantling waste computers and monitors
• Figure 97. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel
• Figure 98. Conceptual landscape of next-gen leather materials
• Figure 99. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam
• Figure 100. Hermes bag made of MycoWorks' mycelium leather
• Figure 101. Ganni blazer made from bacterial cellulose
• Figure 102. Bou Bag by GANNI and Modern Synthesis
• Figure 103. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres)
• Figure 104. Flow chart for biodiesel production
• Figure 105. Biodiesel (B20) average prices, current and historical, USD/litre
• Figure 106. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year)
• Figure 107. SWOT analysis for renewable iesel
• Figure 108. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year)
• Figure 109. SWOT analysis for Bio-aviation fuel
• Figure 110. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2019-2035 (Million litres/year)
• Figure 111. SWOT analysis for bio-naphtha
• Figure 112. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2035 (tonnes)
• Figure 113. SWOT analysis biomethanol
• Figure 114. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks
• Figure 115. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading
• Figure 116. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation
• Figure 117. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process
• Figure 118. SWOT analysis for ethanol
• Figure 119. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres)
• Figure 120. Properties of petrol and biobutanol
• Figure 121. Biobutanol production route
• Figure 122. Biogas and biomethane pathways
• Figure 123. Overview of biogas utilization
• Figure 124. Biogas and biomethane pathways
• Figure 125. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production
• Figure 126. Schematic overview of biomass gasification for biomethane production
• Figure 127. SWOT analysis for biogas
• Figure 128. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm3/h of Syngas, 2021
• Figure 129. SWOT analysis for biohydrogen
• Figure 130. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline
• Figure 131. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires
• Figure 132. Used tires conversion process
• Figure 133. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm3/h of Syngas, 2021
• Figure 134. Overview of biogas utilization
• Figure 135. Biogas and biomethane pathways
• Figure 136. Process steps in the production of electrofuels
• Figure 137. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics
• Figure 138. Production process for green hydrogen
• Figure 139. E-liquids production routes
• Figure 140. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products
• Figure 141. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production
• Figure 142. Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels
• Figure 143. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production
• Figure 144. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production
• Figure 145. Green ammonia production and use
• Figure 146. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction
• Figure 147. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation
• Figure 148. Estimated production cost of green ammonia
• Figure 149. Bio-oil upgrading/fractionation techniques